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Cristopher Columbus

The 15th century marked the beginning of the Age of Great Discoveries, a period in which European maritime powers competed fiercely for trade routes and new lands. Portugal, under the command of Infante Dom Henrique, and Spain, led by the Catholic Monarchs Fernando and Isabella, were the main Catholic powers in Europe, who divided the world between them during large expeditions towards the New World, resulting in enormous competition that put into question it causes the future of humanity and the world, which concerns everyone.

Due to the importance of such events, the Treaty of Tordesillas was signed in 1494. The Treaty of Tordesillas was intended to solve the dispute that arose following the return of Christopher Columbus and his crew, who had sailed under the Crown of Castile. On his way back to Spain he first stopped at Lisbon, where he requested another meeting with King John II to prove to him that there were more islands to the southwest of the Canary Islands. After learning of the Castilian-sponsored voyage, the Portuguese King sent a threatening letter to the Catholic Monarchs, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, stating that by the Treaty of Alcáçovas signed in 1479 and by the 1481 papal bull Aeterni regis that granted all lands south of the Canary Islands to Portugal, all of the lands discovered by Columbus belonged, in fact, to Portugal. The Portuguese king also stated that he was already making arrangements for a fleet (an armada led by Francisco de Almeida) to depart shortly and take possession of the new lands. The Spanish rulers replied that Spain owned the islands discovered by Columbus and warned King João not permit anyone from Portugal to go there. Finally, the rulers invited Portugal to send ambassadors to begin diplomatic negotiations aimed at settling the rights of each nation in the Atlantic. The treaty defined as a demarcation line the meridian 370 leagues west of the island of Santo Antão in the Cape Verde archipelago, contradicting the previous bull of Pope Alexander VI. This line was located halfway between these islands (then Portuguese) and the Caribbean islands discovered by Columbus, referred to in the treaty as “Cipango” and Antilia. The territories east of this meridian would belong to Portugal and the territories to the west, to Castile. The treaty was ratified by Castile on July 2 and by Portugal on September 5, 1494, thus dividing the world between these two powers.

After signing the Treaty, in the same year of 1494, Columbus began designing an expedition towards the unknown territories west of the meridian defined in the Treaty, intending to explore the then unknown territories south of the part of the map provided to Castile in the treaty.

Reconstitution of the Nao Cornelio

In early 1494, with the intention of exploring the southwest corner of planet Earth, Queen Isabel ordered an expedition to Columbus. This expedition would take 4 ships: the Nao (big ship used until 16th Century) Cornelio, led by Cristóvão Colombo, the Caravel Zegarra, in command of Romano Sinuso, the Caravel Galeas, led by Fellipe Vellona, and the Caravel Savala, in command of Gabriel Forto. The ships were supplied throughout the year, moored in the busy port of Vigo, until the arrival of December of the same year 1494, the year in which the expedition left.
This would be one of the most daring expeditions of the Era of Great Discoveries. Christopher Columbus, an intrepid navigator, would lead the journey into the unknown. The crew of all 4 ships ordered was made up of very experienced navigators, including, in addition to Colombo, Sinuso, Vellona and Forto, Raimundo Alcazar, who had sailed aboard Nao Cornelio throughout the trip and was in charge of safety and feeding of the entire remaining crew, Captain Heriberto Villarrubia, who had commanded the Caravel Galeas, the largest of the 3 Caravelas taken on the expedition, and Donato Puentes, who was also on board the Nao Cornelio during the storm, helping Columbus to steer it and preventing it from tipping over.
Nao Cornelio was the largest ship of its time. With three tall masts and sails in the wind, she led the entire expedition, proudly leading the fleet. Its sturdy wooden hull cut through the rough waters, while the crew, made up of experienced sailors and intrepid adventurers, faced the challenges of ocean navigation. Christopher Columbus had led the ship's entire crew and led the rest of the fleet across the seas.
The 3 caravels that were also on the expedition, Zegarra, Galeas and Savala, despite being much smaller than the imposing Nao Cornelio, were also huge ships. Caravels are, as is generally known, more agile and maneuverable than Naos, which is why they were ideal for exploring unknown waters.
On December 14, 1494, the church bells in Vigo announced the beginning of the journey. The expedition set out with the hope of discovering unexplored lands and unknown riches. However, the journey would not be easy. The unknown, merciless and unpredictable, challenged sailors with every mile they sailed. Fierce storms battered the ships during the first months of the voyage, testing the courage and endurance of the seafarers.
Life aboard ships was a complex dance between man and the rushing sea. There was no luxury or abundant space, just the vastness of the ocean and the promise of unknown lands on the distant horizon.
The sailors faced an arduous and uncertain routine. These were the protagonists of an epic journey, sailing in search of the unknown. Every dawn, the sun rose above the horizon, but it did not guarantee a peaceful day.
The cramped space of the ships required close and constant coexistence. The crew, made up of men of different backgrounds and abilities, shared the narrow cabins, where privacy was a rare luxury. The conditions were spartan, with few comforts and no certainty of when, or if, they would reach the unknown.
Food, essential to maintain the necessary energy, consisted of a basic diet of hard biscuits, salted meat, beans and, whenever possible, fresh fish caught in deep waters. Fresh water was rationed as carefully as possible, as it was a precious resource in the midst of the vast ocean. The monotony of the diet and the constant concern about water scarcity were daily challenges faced by sailors.
In the first months of the trip, strong storms hit the North Atlantic Ocean region. After crossing the Equator, the waters became calmer and warmer, making the journey easier for navigators.
The nights were plunged into the darkness of the ocean, lit only by the bright spots of the starry sky. In the light of the moon, sailors maintained constant vigil, alert to the invisible dangers that the darkness could hide. It was a delicate balance between the duty to stay the course and the need to rest to face the challenges of the next day.
Life on board was not only a battle against the unknown, but it was also an experience of camaraderie forged in adversity. The crew shared stories and songs to keep morale high, finding solace in narratives that connected them to their distant roots. Faith in Christopher Columbus as a leader and visionary guided their hearts, even in the most difficult times.
This monotonous lifestyle was maintained for about 9 months, until, on August 27, 1495, the sailors saw the horizon line that indicated arrival at the San Loro Archipelago.

Reconstitution of Columbus's Arrival at Sinuso

Sinuso's Report Sheet

The landing on the San Loro Islands, in particular on the island of Sinuso, was an exciting chapter in the saga of Christopher Columbus' expeditions. After months of uncertain navigation across the vast Atlantic Ocean, the sight of unknown lands brought relief and excitement to the crew.
The Nao Cornelio and the caravels Zegarra, Galeas and Savala anchored in the calm waters close to what would become the city of Tarroja. The disembarkation was not without challenges, as the explorers faced the peculiarities of the unfamiliar terrain. The initial contact with the new land was marked by a mixture of fascination and apprehension.
Upon setting foot on Loroan soil, Columbus's sailors came across a lush and unknown landscape. Vibrant tropical vegetation contrasted with the monotony of the ships' decks, and the fresh scent of the jungle permeated the air. The exotic fauna and unknown sounds filled the senses, causing a feeling of wonder and awe.
The crew, eager to explore the island, organized land expeditions to investigate the riches and dangers that Sinuso held. Christopher Columbus personally led some of these incursions, guiding his men along winding trails, unveiling the diversity of Loro's flora and fauna.
The adventures were interspersed with challenges. The local fauna aroused both fascination and caution. The crew also had to learn to deal with the dense vegetation of the jungles, in an unknown terrain that hid surprises both wonderful and dangerous.
The landing was not just a scientific exploration; it was a search for precious resources that could justify the journey. Spanish explorers found evidence of precious woods, exotic plants, spices, and natural resources that could enrich all of Spain.
According to the expedition report, the first land expedition on the Island was launched on September 2, 1495, and among the explorers were Columbus, of course, and other important personalities, namely Romano Sinuso, who, with the approval of Columbus and, later , by Queen Isabel, named the Island. Romano Sinuso led the land expedition, in which food was stored for much of the time the explorers spent on the Island. During the expedition, the largest source of fresh water on the Island was also discovered: Lake Arellanes, in the eastern region of the Island. Despite being unable to build any type of civilization on the Island, the navigators spent the night there until January 1496, for around 5 months. The most used place for overnight stays was the Nau Cornelio, where around 50 people could sleep. Only more important personalities used caravels.
The second land expedition on the Island was launched on November 14, 1495, in the middle of the tropical summer. This expedition should have been much more important than the first, as it was launched during a hunger crisis among navigators on the Island, who even committed cannibalism, according to the report written by Sinuso. But some unforeseen events happened. This expedition was marked by an outbreak of malaria among Spanish explorers, which killed 11 explorers, according to the report, including important figures such as Fellipe Vellona, whose body was buried in the jungle, and Heriberto Villarrubia, whose body was thrown into the lake. After camping for 5 nights by the lake, exposed to hunger and disease and after losing 11 men, Columbus ended the expedition on November 20th, without any update. The following months were marked by intense fishing, amidst hunger, and at the end of December, Columbus began to think about the possibility of returning to Spain. Despite everything, most navigators were afraid to return, as the ships were quite fragile after the first trip, so Columbus ordered maintenance on the ships, even in the absence of natural resources.
The following month was marked by work, hunger, thirst and heat. Sinuso's report speaks of extremely intense heat, which burned the explorers' skin. Despite everything, after a month of intense work, the hulls of all 4 ships were renewed and enough food was stored for the journey.
It was on January 8, 1496 that the return journey left, with 17 fewer men than the outward journey. The expedition proved to be a success, despite having many low points. Among the men who died were 4 workers who died while maintaining the Nau Cornelio, 2 explorers who died from starvation, and 11 explorers who died from malaria. Among the deceased are many important names, namely Fellipe Vellona, Heriberto Vilarrubia, Taurino Poveda and Clemente Camejo.
The navigators' return journey, after the initial discovery and exploration of the San Loro Islands, was marked by a mixture of triumph, challenges and the uncertainty that often accompanies the exploration of unknown lands. The ships, loaded with information, potential riches and reports of the new lands, left the islands to return to Spain, beginning the long journey back across the Atlantic.
The sailors, now familiar with the winds and currents of the Atlantic, departed San Loro aboard the Nau Cornelio, the caravels Zegarra, Galeas and Savala. The crew, enriched by the experience and challenged by the prospect of return, faced the seas with a mixture of anticipation and apprehension. Despite everything, this trip was much calmer, as much of it was made in the South Atlantic and Equatorial Ocean, making life easier for navigators.
The return was punctuated by challenges that tested the navigators' skills. The weather conditions were very favorable to the navigators, but, despite everything, many other problems made the trip difficult, namely an outbreak of yellow fever, which occurred in the first months of the trip. According to the report, many navigators died, including Gabriel Forto, Donato Puentes and Galtero Mena, 3 very important navigators for the expedition. The bodies were thrown into the sea.
During the return journey, Castilian navigators not only carried with them the natural riches of San Loro, but also the seeds of the future relationship between Spain and the newly discovered islands. The meticulously drawn maps, detailed accounts and samples of flora and fauna were valuable treasures that would testify to the success of the expedition.
The challenges of the return journey were not limited to health issues alone. Logistical issues, such as supply management and ship maintenance, became constant concerns. The arrival in the North Atlantic was marked by a storm that sank the Caravela Savala, killing everyone on board and resulting in the loss of a lot of food and very important resources for the journey.
It was on June 9, 1496 that the navigators arrived in Spain, docking again in the port of Vigo. The return of the Spanish navigators to Vigo was an extraordinary event that generated great expectation and celebration among the inhabitants of the Galician city. The port, always active, was especially busy that day as rumors of the expedition's arrival spread.
As the ships approached the port, an increasing agitation took over the docks. The city's bells began to ring, announcing the triumphant return of the expedition led by Christopher Columbus. People gathered anxiously on the banks of the port, awaiting the return of the navigators who set out in search of the unknown.
When the Nau Cornelio and the caravels Zegarra, Galeas and Savala docked, the crowd burst into applause and ovation. The Spanish explorers, now veterans of a daring journey, disembarked to a storm of cheers. Christopher Columbus, in particular, was welcomed as a hero, an intrepid navigator who had broadened Spain's horizons.
The inhabitants of Vigo crowded around the ships, eager to hear the explorers' reports and witness the wonders and riches they had brought with them. The city's squares and streets were filled with a festive atmosphere, as news of the newly discovered lands spread like wildfire, sparking the population's imagination and enthusiasm.
This news reached Queen Isabel on June 15 of the same year. The Queen, pleased with the resounding success of the expedition, presented the navigators with food and land. Sinuso's report was very well preserved and is today in the Domnia Historical Museum, almost in its entirety.
The discovery of San Loro was kept a secret from the international scene, as everything indicated that the archipelago was located in Portuguese territory, as defined in the Treaty of Tordesillas. After the beginning of the urbanization and industrialization of the Islands, Columbus, without the possibility of continuing to hide the Archipelago, looked for the best opportunity to establish an agreement with Portugal.

Reconstitution of Tarroja in the 14th Century

Amid the success of the First Expedition and the financial and territorial growth of the Spanish Empire that allowed the development of larger Expeditions, Columbus began to design his Second Expedition to Sinuso, which was certainly the largest expedition of the Age of Great Discoveries. Columbus had a number of objectives with this expedition. His main objective was to locate Sinuso Island taking into account the Treaty of Tordesillas. Columbus feared having to supply the Island to the Portuguese Empire, so he kept his discovery out of the international scene. Columbus' second objective with this expedition was to discover potential islands around Sinuso. It is believed that more Islands were sighted around Sinuso, which possibly drew even more attention to Columbus for a Second Expedition.
Aware of what he intended to do, Columbus sent a letter to Isabel asking her to order a Second Expedition to Columbus. Given the success of the First Expedition and the vast arsenal of mineral and agricultural resources brought from it by Columbus, Isabella agrees to Columbus' request.
It was in September 1496 that Isabel commissioned Columbus's Second Expedition. This was made up of 8 ships, 2 ships – the Nau Carmona, led by Colombo, and the Nau Alcocer, led by Romano Sinuso – and 6 caravels - the Caravela De la Torre, the Caravela San Roman, the Caravela Lazos, the Caravela Rosales , the Caravela Montes de Oca and the Caravela Jaimez. 2 barinels would also be taken, to better organize the rationing of food and fresh water. The logistics of the trip were very well thought out: The most important personalities in the expedition scenario would go aboard the Nau Carmona. Caravels would be used to transport mineral resources and escort larger ships, of course, while barinels, often used as cargo ships, would carry food and barrels of fresh water. The leader of the fleet was Cristóvão Colombo, who was aboard the Nau Carmona on both trips. Leading the Nau Alcocer would be Romano Sinuso, a man Columbus trusted after the First Expedition. The Caravelas De la Torre, San Roman, Lazos, Rosales, Montes de Oca and Jaimez were, respectively, under the command of Quirino de Zamora, Platon de Palencia, Alvar de Lérida, Ulises Herrera de Barcelona, Santiago Pérez de Toledo, Fremin Baez and Héctor Vargas de Léon. The barinels would both be led by Estevan Montalvan de Ávila, who was responsible for the rationing and distribution of food and fresh water. Another important member of the crew was Valentín González de Cuenca, who was also on board the Nau Carmona and was in charge of writing the expedition report. The Expedition would depart from Porto Palos de la Frontera, in southern Spain, and sought to be the largest and most important expedition of its time.
The fleet was ready to set sail in November 1497, but Columbus postponed the expedition's launch until March, to avoid having to cross the North Atlantic Ocean during the winter.
And so it happened. The day of the departure of Christopher Columbus' Second Expedition was marked in history as an extraordinary event, which took place on March 17, 1498, in the port city of Palos de la Frontera, located in southern Spain. The atmosphere in the city was one of great expectation and anticipation, despite the discovery of Sinuso being kept secret from the vast majority of people. The population of Palos de la Frontera and the surrounding areas gathered in large numbers to witness the departure of the expedition. According to writings of the time, Queen Isabella herself had appeared in Palos de la Frontera to watch the departure of the greatest expedition of the century. The expedition took with it around 200 navigators, thus marking its importance and magnitude.
The expedition arrived east of Sinuso on October 29, 1498, on a calm and warm night, as specified in the report by Valentín González de Cuenca. Some land expeditions were organized in search of agricultural and mineral resources, without great success.
After 2 months on the island, Columbus sent one of the caravels he had taken on the expedition to Spain, under the command of Quirino de Zamora, to take slaves and peasants to the island. Valentín de Cuenca's report does not specify when Quirino returned, but it does specify that he returned with enough labor to begin the construction and development of the first cities. The first city of Sinuso and the entire Archipelago was Tarroja, established in the east of Sinuso. Mass agricultural activities began to be practiced in the area and, later, mineral resources also began to be explored. The founding and development of Tarroja began a new era in San Loro. More cities began to be founded, as more islands were discovered. By the end of 1499, there were already cities on 5 Islands of the Archipelago, excluding Esacia and Maurbo. Domnia, a mining town in the far west of Sinuso, the largest of the Archipelago Islands, was the largest city in the entire Archipelago at the time. It was from July 7, 1499 that Valentín González de Cuenca began to refer to the Archipelago as “San Loro”. The name pays homage to São Lourenço, reflecting the spirituality of the navigators, and at the same time refers to the colorful talking bird, which became a symbol of the Archipelago. From then on, San Loro began to be considered part of the Spanish Empire, gaining the status of a colony.

>>Spanish San Loro (1500-1853)

Loroan Plantation in the 16h Century

The San Loro Archipelago went through a very interesting process of urbanization and economic development, during the years 1498 and 1499. The first cities were formed, among the most important Tarroja and Domnia. Agricultural and mining development were what most and best boosted the Loroan economy at the time. Huge gold mines were discovered on the outskirts of Tarroja, which led to the creation of a series of cities and military posts in the region. Docks were also built in Tarroja, which facilitated arrival by water to Sinuso. In the central region of the Island, cocoa production stood out and, on the edge of the Great Lakes, sugar cane, resulting in the formation of small agricultural villages throughout the island, especially in the regions close to the Great Lakes, where, Between January and March, there are major floods, making these regions more fertile. In the western region of the Island, what became one of the most important ports of the time was built, around which the largest city on the Island began to be built: Domnia. The port of Domnia, named in honor of María Domnia de Leão, the only woman present on the trip, was a great connection between America and Europe. On the remaining 6 islands, discovered during Columbus's 2nd expedition, there were also some important cities, among which Sotago and Parlona stand out, but, despite everything, the focus remained on Sinuso, the largest and, consequently, most rich island in the archipelago.
With all the conditions mentioned above, on February 4, 1500, the Colony of San Loro was established, named after, as previously mentioned, the parrot (Loro in Spanish), which became a symbol of the archipelago. That same day, Columbus said goodbye to the Archipelago and returned to Spain, in the company of the entire crew of the Nau Carmona.
The first years of the colony were quite profitable. The massive extraction of agricultural and mineral natural resources has greatly enriched the archipelago. The gold mines were intensely worked by slaves, who began to create large mining cities throughout the Archipelago. Agriculture was also greatly explored. Cocoa cultivation proved to be the most efficient for the economic growth of the Colony. The Spanish, with almost half of the world's control over this food product, sold it for a fortune, along with sugar, beans and bananas, which were also extremely important in the economic development of the Colony. The city of Domnia is no longer just a port city, but also the great agricultural capital of the Island. Domnia is crossed by the only river in the entire Archipelago, the Aumbacio River, whose floods, which occur around February, have allowed rapid agricultural growth in the city. Rice and sugar production stood out among a series of other agricultural products, including cocoa, beans, corn and coffee, for example. This economic growth was in fact visible from 1510 onwards, the year in which the Archipelago's economic production soared.
From that same year of 1510, the Queen of Spain, Joan I, could no longer keep the Colony a secret, as this would be very difficult taking into account the rapid economic growth of the Archipelago. Therefore, on October 7, 1510, the Treaty of Braga was signed between the Queen of Spain, Joan I, and the Portuguese monarch, Manuel I, which defined that the San Loro Archipelago would be in the possession and domain of León and Castile, but the Kingdom of Portugal had the right to expand and explore the newly discovered Brazil.
By the 1550s, San Loro already dominated much of Spain's economy. The archipelago's economy, largely centered on agriculture, soared again, and the port of Domnia became the most important in the Americas, and the city became the most important metropolis of any colony on the planet. Other cities also grew, demonstrating notable importance, such as Tarroja, a mining city, whose economy was based on the extraction of gold and aluminum, and the agricultural city of Tevir, which grew around the sugar plantations that surround Lake Sinuso. At the southern end of Sinuso, Anez also proved to be an important city, which connected practically all of the Colony Islands. On the remaining Islands, the cities that grew the most were Sotago and Parlona, which became economic centers that were also very important for the Colony.

Reenactment of the Battle of Tarroja

Reconstitution of the Signing of the Treaty of Bilbao

Between the 1550s and 1570s, San Loro experienced a period of peace, although economic growth stopped. Urban development also proved to be increasing, as more cities and plantations were being built. But, evidently, the natural riches of San Loro also became interesting in the eyes of other nations on the world stage, so that a series of geopolitical issues were developed, which greatly influenced the future of San Loro and the whole of Spain.
The Treaty of Braga, signed a few decades earlier, was an attempt to resolve the Spanish violation of the Treaty of Tordesillas, in which Portugal undertook to cede San Loro in exchange for control of the Brazilian colony. However, seeing that Brazil was entering too far into the territory specifically designated for the Spanish in the Treaty, Philip II, taking advantage of the union of crowns between Portugal and Spain, demanded, in 1572, that the Brazilian colony stop expanding towards the west of the meridian defined in the Treaty of Tordesillas. The Portuguese people were unhappy with this decision, but Filipe refused to take it away.
San Loro's natural resources were not only interesting in the eyes of the Spanish crown. Therefore, the British Queen, Mary I, attempted to sign the treaty of Sheffield (15 November 1572) with Philip II and the Dutch monarch. The Treaty's demands were clear: the territory of Sinuso should be divided between the 3 Empires, with the Kingdom of the Netherlands paying a certain amount to the British royal family and the British Empire paying a certain amount to the Spanish monarch. Only the Spanish monarch refused the offer and did not sign the treaty.
Mary I tried a second offer and asked the other two monarchs to meet with her in London, although they both refused. Therefore, Maria I sent an ultimatum to Philip, where the demands were clear: either the territories of San Loro were divided between the British and Spanish crowns or a maritime blockade would be declared on the entire European Spanish territory and the Archipelago would be invaded. Some other demands were made, such as the liberation of Portuguese territory and compliance with the demands of the Treaty of Braga. Philip did not comply with one of the British demands, but, fearing “La Armada Invencible”, he used the Portuguese navy to his advantage and demanded that Portuguese ships patrol the entire Bay of Biscay and the entire Mediterranean border of Spain.
It was on January 11, 1573 that the British officially declared the maritime blockade of all Spanish European territory. Philip II ordered the Portuguese armada to open fire on the ships of the invincible armada, but, unhappy with the union of the crowns of Portugal and Spain, the Portuguese sailors allied themselves with the British during the blockade. Mary I, British monarch, sent a letter to the Spanish monarch demanding that he not open fire on the Portuguese and British armadas, and threatening an invasion of European Spanish territory. Philip complied with these demands because he knew he had no chance of defeating the British fleet.
Maria I left the English general Reginald Algernon Fitzwilliam in charge of the invasion of the San Loro archipelago. The English fleet left Dingle, in Ireland, on July 29, 1573, and arrived on the outskirts of the city of Tarroja around March 1574. The Spanish military posts in the region were taken by surprise, and the first clashes greatly favored the British infantry. On April 17, 1574, the British attacked Tarroja. The city was surrounded by large walls, according to representative paintings of the time, and what is believed is that, using artillery weapons such as catapults, or using gunpowder, the British infantry opened a hole in the wall, allowing soldiers to enter. British people. Tarroja was one of the most important cities in San Loro, so, with the exception of plantations and rural areas, the city was full of Spanish royal cavalry soldiers. Using writings from the time, it is possible to say that the battle was more intense than Fitzwilliam's infantry had imagined. The Spanish cavalry resisted well, and working-class personnel, such as slaves and peasants, abandoned the plantations to go and fight. In any case, the outcome of the battle was already defined, and the victory of the British infantry was made official in October 1574, when the Spanish military retreated outside the walls, where they managed to set up a minimally strong line of defense. The conquest of Tarroja cost lives on both sides, and this is due to a series of factors that greatly influenced the performance of both sides. Fitzwilliam expected a peaceful and short first battle, but was surprised by the long and tough resistance of the Spanish cavalry present in the city, while the Spanish military was taken completely by surprise.
The British infantry, after conquering Tarroja, left for the city of Vincentia, in November 1574. Although also quite important, Vincentia did not have walls, which would make an assault and a possible conquest much easier. On the other hand, the military posts on the outskirts of Vincentia were already aware of the invasion. Again under Fitzwilliam's command, the British infantry attempted to outflank the Spanish defense line. The clashes here were indeed quite intense, but the British had the upper hand again, and, in January 1575, they managed to break the Spanish defense line and advance significantly into the territory of Sinuso. In May 1575, the British had already conquered almost the entire east coast of the Island, which worried Spanish generals and Spanish royalty. Maria I again sent an ultimatum to the Spanish monarch, with the same demands as the first, threatening to continue the offensive in Sinuso.
Philip II, aware of Spanish military inferiority in both quantity and quality, asked Mary I to sign the Treaty of Bilbao, which was signed by both monarchs on January 9, 1576. The terms demanded by the English were again clear: the entire east coast of Sinuso was to be supplied to the British Empire and Philip was to cease to have any authority over Portuguese territory. However, due to pressure from other European powers, namely from the Kingdom of France and the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the British monarch only demanded that Philip comply with the demands of the Treaty of Braga, in addition, of course, to the end of the Iberian Union. . However, the sea blockade would not be lifted. Finding himself between a rock and a hard place, Philip signed the Treaty of Bilbao and committed to complying with most of its demands, with the exception of the provision of Loroan lands to the British crown. Instead, Philip paid a sum of money to the British monarch, who sympathetically accepted the offer and ordered the withdrawal of the maritime blockade and the British offensive in Sinuso.
The end of the withdrawal of the maritime blockade only happened on March 7, 1576, and the order to withdraw for the offensive in Sinuso only reached Reginald Fitzwilliam on September 9 of the same year, putting an end to an Era and bringing peace back. to San Loro. The city of Tarroja had to be completely rebuilt in the following years, which led to the discovery of the Santa María Gold Mine, the largest in the entire archipelago. The floods of January 1577 were especially generous, helping greatly to recover lost plantations.
The decades that followed were of great prosperity and economic development, and intense exploration of the Archipelago began again, allowing the extraction of many natural resources. The Archipelago's gold began to be extracted more and better explored, allowing a significant advance in the Loroan economy.

The City of Domnia in the 17th Century

What the Spanish called "La Serenidád" was a lasting period of peace and economic prosperity between 1577, after the signing of the treaty of Bilbao, and 1795, the year of the first attempted coup d'état by the working class of San Loro.
"La Sereinidád" marked an extensive period of peace in San Loro, extending from 1577, after the signing of the Treaty of Bilbao, until 1795. During these nearly 120 years, the islands experienced an era of relative stability, contrasting with the turmoil of the British invasions of the past.
With the cities rebuilt and the wounds of war slowly healing, San Loro devoted itself to internal development. Trade flourished, both between Spaniards and other European nations, promoting a more diversified and robust economy. Agriculture, fishing and mining prospered, boosting the prosperity of local communities. Several agricultural towns were founded in the center of the country, to help with the extraction of sugar cane and cocoa, some of the most expensive resources found in San Loro. The production of palm oil has become another great source of income for San Loro, which has contributed immensely to the development of inland rural locations, while the extraction of plums, almonds and mangosteen has allowed the construction of more plantations and better use of the floods. . Products from the sea also began to be better utilized, and fishing villages also began to develop based on fishing for anchovies and catfish.
Culturally, "La Sereinidád" has witnessed the resurgence of local traditions. The preservation of oral heritage and folk practices became a priority, while artists and artisans contributed to San Loro's rich cultural tapestry. The period also saw the flourishing of educational and scientific institutions, setting the stage for intellectual and technological advances.
In the social field, "La Sereinidád" promoted a more inclusive and equitable society in San Loro. Measures were taken to improve the population's living conditions, including advances in health, housing and education. Education became accessible to a wider section of society, allowing future generations to contribute to the continued development of the islands.
Furthermore, during this period of tranquility, there was a rediscovery and appreciation of the islands' rich biodiversity. Environmental preservation initiatives have been implemented to protect unique ecosystems, and San Loro has become an example of sustainability for other nations. The endemic fauna and flora were the subject of scientific studies, boosting environmental awareness among the inhabitants.
Throughout "La Sereinidád", San Loro also consolidated its economic autonomy, despite still depending on the Spanish in some things. It was from then on that ideas of a coup d'état began to be created, especially among the working class.
San Loro stood out as a commercial center in the South Atlantic, taking advantage of its strategic location and the islands' natural resources. The trade routes established during this period connected San Loro to other regions, promoting cultural exchanges and strengthening its diplomatic ties. The economy diversified, incorporating sectors such as agriculture, fishing and mining, contributing to the self-sufficiency and prosperity of the archipelago.
From a broader point of view, "La Sereinidád" represents a crucial era in the history of San Loro, where the archipelago managed to recover from the hardships of the British invasions and build a solid path towards stability and prosperity. This period of peace allowed not only the physical reconstruction of cities, but also the reconstruction of institutions. But, despite everything, the populations remained dissatisfied, especially due to the use of slave labor by the Spanish, which was never abolished in San Loro until its independence on May 24, 1804.
The end of "La Serenidád" was marked with the Coupe D'État of 1812.

• The Coup d'état of 1812

The 1812 coup d'état in San Loro was a landmark event that reflected the deep social and political pressures that gripped the archipelago during the 19th century. San Loro's political and economic landscape was rife with inequalities, injustice, and exploitation, fueling discontent among the underprivileged classes and setting the stage for rebellion against Spanish rule.
At the top of the social structure were the Spanish, represented by King José I, who held all political and economic power over San Loro. Below him were the landowners, who enjoyed privileges and wealth at the expense of the peasants and slaves, who made up the base of the social pyramid. This division of classes was evident in all aspects of life in San Loro, from unequal access to land and resources to the rampant exploitation of slave labor on plantations and mines. Although many in San Loro were Spanish, the majority of the population remained slaves, many coming from South America, Central America and North Africa.
Alberto Torres Castro, a communist leader, emerged as a central figure in organizing the coup d'état of 1812. With the support of other opponents of the Spanish government, Torres Castro meticulously planned the assassination of the King during his visit to Domnia, the capital of San Loro , on February 7, 1812. The objective was to trigger a popular revolt against Spanish rule and gain independence for the archipelago.
However, the plan was thwarted by the betrayal of Diego Sánchez Medina, one of the King's escorts during his visit. Medina discovered Torres Castro's plan and alerted Spanish authorities, allowing security measures to be taken. When the King arrived in Domnia, he was the target of an armed attack, being shot twice in the leg, but surviving the attack. Spanish forces quickly suppressed the revolt, arresting and executing the conspirators.
The failure of the 1812 coup d'état was a severe blow to opponents of the Spanish government in San Loro. Despite attempts to instigate a popular uprising, the quick and effective response of the Spanish authorities demonstrated the strength of colonial control over the archipelago. However, the event served as an eye-opener for future struggles for independence and social justice in San Loro, inspiring later generations to continue fighting for significant political and economic change.

Isabel II of Spain

The "Revolución de Mayo" in San Loro was a transcendental moment in the archipelago's chronicle, marking the prelude to its journey to independence and sovereignty. The movement, denoted by the name "Movimiento Popular por la Emancipación Loroana", or simply "El Movimiento Popular", had its birth in the twilight of April 1852, when an effervescence of protests and demonstrations spread across the main cities of Sinuso Island , including the imposing capital, Domnia, bustling epicenter of revolutionary fervor. These outcry arose from the growing dissatisfaction with Spanish domination and the effervescence of insurgent ideologies that were sweeping Latin America at the time.
The heralds of the movement, mostly anonymous, rebelled against the Spanish yoke, aiming for the establishment of an autonomous and emancipated government in San Loro. Mobilizing through fiery rallies, disseminating incendiary pamphlets and gathering popular support, the leaders of "El Movimiento Popular" encouraged the cry for freedom, aiming for the abolition of the odious slavery system, agrarian reform and the consolidation of representative institutions and democratic.
The peak of the Mayo Revolution unfolded on May 25, 1852, when thousands of citizens gathered in front of the government palace in Domnia, raising demands for immediate changes. The strategic choice of the date was not a mere coincidence, as it coincided with the expected visit of the Spanish monarch, Isabel II, a symbolic target of popular dissatisfaction. Faced with overwhelming pressure and fearing an uncontrollable insurrectionary ferment, the colonial authorities were compelled to give in to the insurgents' demands. The height of the revolt occurred when the rebels invaded the palace, and, after a series of frustrated attempts at negotiation, the leader of "El Movimiento Popular", Diego Martínez de la Cruz, opted for a radical act, taking the life of Isabel II with two stabs to the chest, followed by the decapitation of his majesty, whose head was preserved as a trophy and later sent to the Spanish royal family.
The macabre sending of the monarch's head to Spain, accompanied by a letter demanding the total independence of San Loro, marked the climax of this revolution of titanic proportions. In February 1853, a letter proclaiming the archipelago's independence as a sovereign state, free from the yoke of the Spanish Empire, arrived in Domnia, now controlled by the insurgents, consecrating February 19 as San Loro's Independence Day. The post-revolution reforms, although fundamental, were permeated with challenges and turbulence, especially in the transition to a representative democratic system, which marked the contribution of each citizen in the election of their national representatives.

>>The First Loroan Republic (1853-1917)

Álvaro Cordero Peralta, the first loroan president

It was on November 20, 1853, the year of San Loro's Independence, that the first democratic elections were organized in the country, where anyone could run under certain conditions, including, for example, being over 25 years of age and have lived at least 15 years in the Archipelago. Furthermore, only men who owned land could run for presidential elections. There were a total of 9 candidates for the elections, with Álvaro Cordero Peralta, a nationalist born in the Archipelago who was, at the time, 31 years old, winning. Peralta received 61% of the votes, as he was affiliated with the most popular of the 3 recently created Loroan parties: the Movimiento de Derecha Loroano (MDL), or Loroan Right Movement, a right-wing party founded by Diego Martínez de la Cruz and a group of nationalists from San Loro. Second place was awarded to another MDL affiliate, Daniel Nuñez Fuentes, who received 12% of the votes cast. Third place was taken by Diego Ruiz Blanco Pascual, independent of any party but strongly linked to the right, who received 8% of the popular vote.
The other two parties founded in San Loro, the Frente Socialista Loroana (FSL) and the Partido Verde (PV), had very few candidates and very little support, especially the PV, which only had 9th place, Carlos Martín Benítez, who he received just 0.9% of the votes.
It was also visible that the candidates of the Socialist Front, the FSL, had the vast majority of votes from the population of the rural areas in the interior of the Islands, while the candidates of the Movimiento de Derecha had the votes concentrated in the large urban centers, such as Domnia, Tevir and Parlona. The only PV candidate, Carlos Benítez, had just 4499 votes, which were concentrated especially in suburban areas, such as Tarroja, Vincentia and Alcozues.
It is also worth remembering that the first elections were not perfect, and had a series of problems, including the filter for voters. San Loro had around 500,012 voters, who were only men who owned land. As San Loro had only a few months of independence, it was not required, for example, the 2-year military service, which would be required in the following presidential elections in 1857. Furthermore, everyone in the voting centers could see who anyone voted.
The newly elected president Álvaro Peralta had to resolve a series of social and economic problems in the Archipelago. Peralta was unable to serve as president until the legislative elections of November 27, 1853, in which, unsurprisingly, the Movimiento de Derecha won, filling 102 of the 150 seats in the National Assembly. The PV elected only 4 deputies, achieving last place among those who elected deputies. More parties were founded, among them the Socialist Party (PSSL), which later became the most popular in the Archipelago.
The Assembly's first proposal to Peralta was the total abolition of slavery in the Archipelago, which was more than accepted by the newly elected president. Several resolutions were also proposed that later helped to compose the National Constitution of San Loro, which was officially published in 1855, still under Peralta's government.
Ministries also began to be created within the Assembly. At the end of Peralta's government, San Loro had around 8 Ministries: The Ministry of Welfare and Public Health, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of the Interior, the Ministry of Defense, the Ministry of Economy and Finance, the Ministry of the Environment, the Ministry of Agriculture, and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Later, more Ministries were created, helping to organize the Loroan government, which at the time was a mess, with several very important issues still to be resolved.
Peralta's government was quite progressive, especially in the industrial, commercial and residential areas. It was during this four-year period that the University of Domnia, still the largest and oldest in the country, was inaugurated, and the election was held to choose the Loroana flag, in which the current blue and yellow checkered flag was chosen, which represents a landscape Typical beach on the coast of the Islands. The issues of the Revolution still to be resolved were resolved, in addition to the country's currency, the Oro Loroano, being issued, which inflated a lot, so it was replaced by the American Dollar, which became the country's official currency in 1857, after the departure of Peralta of the government. The construction of at least two hospitals and two schools per island was one of the objectives set by Peralta that was not achieved during his government, but which later became a priority and was more than achieved. During this period, the Loroan Armed Forces (FAL) were also created, under the responsibility of the Minister of Defense and Marshal of the Army Evaristo Sánchez Barrientos, who organized the army based on the Roman legions, a strategy used to this day.
Peralta was also crucial in establishing San Loro's international relations, including founding the Corporácion Cooperativa Latina (CCL) together with other independent countries in Latin America: Brazil, Argentina, Peru and Mexico. Peralta also developed good relations with the United States, making 3 diplomatic visits to the country during his government and carrying out very important commercial exchanges, which helped immensely with the economic and population growth and urbanization of San Loro.
Peralta also promoted unity among the Loroana population. It was crucial for Peralta to promote cohesion and unity among the different ethnic, cultural and political groups within San Loro, to avoid internal conflicts and promote peace.
San Loro went from 0 to 100 during Peralta's government, making him a national hero, with a statue in the square named in his honor, Álvaro Peralta Square, in the center of Domnia, in front of the Parliament.
The government of Álvaro Cordero Peralta ended on November 22, 1857, the Sunday of the second presidential elections in San Loro, in which Amadeo Taramundi Escudero was elected, another representative of the Movimiento de Derecha, with 57% of the votes, leaving Peralta in second place.

Gregorio Ibarra Gongóra, the first socialist president in San Loro

Peralta left the government in 1857, leaving the position of president of the Republic in the hands of Amadeo Escudero, another representative of the Movimiento de Derecha. The legislative elections, as is customary in San Loro, took place a week after his election, on November 29, 1857, and put the MDL at the forefront once again. Despite everything, the numbers showed that socialism gained ground in San Loro, placing the PSSL in 2nd place in the elections and the FSL in 3rd. Despite having very similar ideals, the PSSL remained on the center-left, using some right-wing ideals to gain popular support, while the FSL moved almost to the extreme left, using communist ideals to gain the support of low-income people. The PSSL strategy worked better, winning over a large number of people in both urban and rural areas. The results of the elections dictated that, of the now 250 seats in the National Assembly, 126 were occupied by the Movimiento de Derecha and 102 were occupied by the Partido Socialista Loroano.
Escudero noticed popular interest in center-left ideals, so he used some of them, making significantly good changes to the country's dynamics, for example, making education, health and welfare universal and free, and starting to charge more taxes. Escudero also proposed changes in policy, asking for example that women be able to vote. This caused Escudero to be heavily criticized by other leaders at the time, and even contributed to him losing a lot of popular support in the following elections, in which he lost again to Peralta. Escudero was, like Peralta, crucial in the growth of San Loro in the economic, social and geopolitical panorama, making, for example, the Dollar the official currency of San Loro and choosing San Loro's national anthem. Escudero was also crucial to the growth of agriculture and livestock in San Loro, allowing the country to become the 5th largest exporter of rice in the world and the 3rd largest of sugar cane. He also proposed the provincial division of San Loro still used today, dividing the country into 7 provinces, that is, each island is a province, and dividing each province into municipalities and each municipality into parishes. During Escudero's government, immense objectives were also achieved within the infrastructure, building, for example, a new building for the Parliament, which is still used today. Álvaro Peralta Square was also built during his government, making the center of Domnia even more grand and beautiful. Escudero also appealed to tourism, building hotels and a series of other buildings with the aim of boosting the leisure industry. Despite all this contribution to the growth of San Loro, his liberal ideals caused Escudero to be somewhat ostracized from San Loro, so that, after his defeat in the following elections, he moved to the United States. .
Peralta returned to government in 1861, and the PSSL surprisingly elected 112 deputies, while the Movimiento de Derecha elected only 114, much less than in the previous elections. Observing the possibility of the center-left overtaking the right in San Loro, Peralta, president of the Movimiento de Derecha and president of the Republic of San Loro, began to adopt some center-left ideals like Escudero. Despite everything, Peralta continued to follow a less liberal style of government, inhibiting women and men without at least 2 years of military service. Despite everything, the law that ordered that only landowners could vote was removed.
Despite everything, Peralta followed a government in which he valued the unity of the Loroan people as one, using an ideal typical of fascism but in a more liberal way.
From 1865 onwards, Peralta could not hold the position of president of the Republic again, so the person elected was, as expected, Gregorio Ibarra Góngora, an affiliate of the PSSL, a party that also won the following legislative elections, occupying 119 of the 250 seats of the National Assembly. Gongóra had a much less progressive mandate, contrary to what was expected from the left, which caused the right to become popular again in the Archipelago.
In 1867, still under Gongóra's government, Peralta was murdered during a visit to Tevir. His body was buried in the Domnia cemetery where it remains today.
In 1869, Gongóra's mandate ended, and as can be imagined, he was not re-elected and was replaced by the independent Romano Quevedo Ramírez. Despite not being affiliated with any party, Ramírez was evidently linked to the left, and it is even known that he voted for the PSSL in all the elections until then.
Gongóra contributed above all to the growth of agriculture in San Loro, giving rise to "Granja de Gongóra", the largest farm in San Loro, occupying 471 hectares in the center-east of Sinuso, next to Lake Arellanes. Gongóra also founded the second university of San Loro, which he called Universidad Gregorio Gongóra, and which is located in the city of Parlona. Gongóra also made it a priority to create at least one university on each island, which was later achieved.

• The Coup d'Etat of 1875

After Gregorio Gongóra left the government, the position of president of the Republic was occupied by the left-wing independent Romano Quevedo Ramírez, who governed for one and a half terms, until his assassination in the 1875 coup d'état. Interestingly, in the legislative elections, the PSSL lost a lot of popular support, while MIvimiento de Derecha regained leadership, electing 120 of the 250 deputies needed for the Assembly.
The government of President Romano Quevedo Ramírez in San Loro was marked by a series of challenges and significant achievements for the country.
One of President Ramírez's priorities was the implementation of policies to promote the economic and social development of San Loro. He sought to attract foreign investment and promote the growth of local industry, especially in the tourism, agriculture and technology sectors. Additionally, he implemented programs to improve the country's infrastructure, including the construction of roads, schools and hospitals, just like Peralta.
In the political field, Ramírez worked to strengthen democratic institutions and promote civic participation. He sought to promote transparency and accountability in government, as well as guarantee the rights and freedoms of citizens. Furthermore, he sought to promote national reconciliation and build bridges between different political and ethnic groups within San Loro.
In 1873, Ramírez was re-elected, and the Movimiento de Derecha elected one more deputy than in previous elections, keeping the government more or less the same. Ramírez once again proposed the vote for women, for which he was very poorly seen among a large part of the people and for which he was murdered during the coup d'état of 1875. This coup, organized by the same nationalist group that had founded the Movimiento de Derecha, took place in Álvaro Peralta Square, during the president's speech, in which one of the representatives of the Movimiento de Derecha assassinated the president with a musket shot to the neck, killing him with just one shot. The military captured the murderer and arrested him, and he was sentenced to death by guillotine in 1876. The murderer was Anselmo Castillo Vega, whose body was burned and whose ashes were thrown into the sea.
Elections were held in January 1876, in which Benigno Rodríguez Cervantes, an affiliate of the Movimiento de Derecha, was elected, marking the end of a socialist era in San Loro.